Foundational Concepts for Inclusive Language Learning
By Marianna Karatsiori
Globally, at least 2.2 billion people have a near or distance vision impairment (WHO, 2023), and within Europe alone, over 30 million individuals are blind or have partial sight. Students with visual impairments often receive most of their education in general education classrooms, yet language teachers frequently lack the knowledge and tools to effectively support these learners.
This micro-module introduces the foundational concepts essential for creating inclusive foreign language learning environments for students with visual impairments. You will learn about the classification of visual impairments, the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC), the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), and the multisensory design heuristics (e.g. sound, touch, action) for creating multisensory learning materials.
By the end of this module, you will understand why inclusion is not about simplifying the curriculum but about fostering an environment where every student can thrive and achieve high standards.
By the end of this micro-module, you will be able to:
- Explain the classification of visual impairments (mild, moderate, severe, blindness) and understand that visual impairment exists on a continuum, with each student having a unique way of perceiving the world.
- Describe the nine key areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) and articulate why specialized instruction in areas like orientation, mobility, and self-determination is essential for students with visual impairments to compensate for incidental learning they may miss.
- Apply the three core principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the multisensory design heuristics (e.g. sound, touch, action) to design inclusive, multisensory language learning activities.
Understanding Visual Impairment
According to the International Classification of Diseases 11 (ICD-11), vision impairment is classified into two main groups: distance vision impairment and near vision impairment. Distance vision impairment ranges from mild (visual acuity worse than 6/12) to blindness (visual acuity worse than 3/60). It is crucial to understand that many people with vision impairment retain some degree of vision and can effectively utilize their remaining sight.
Visual impairment exists on a continuum. Each student has a unique way of perceiving the world, influenced by factors such as:
- The degree of vision loss
- Age at onset (congenital vs. acquired)
- Whether the impairment is stable or progressive
- The presence of additional disabilities
Teachers should prioritize getting to know the individual student over merely understanding the diagnosis.
The Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)
The ECC is a specialized set of skills and knowledge areas designed to support students with visual impairments. It complements the general education curriculum and addresses unique needs related to vision loss. The ECC teaches visually impaired learners skills that their sighted peers learn through observation—a process known as incidental learning.
The nine key areas of the ECC are:
ECC Area | Description |
1. Compensatory Skills | Teaching Braille, technology, strengthening muscles for braille machines, developing fine motor skills, and building sensory efficiency |
2. Orientation & Mobility | Systematic instruction in mobility aids (canes, guide dogs) and navigation across different environments |
3. Social Interaction | Teaching unwritten social rules, physical gestures, facial expressions, and body language that sighted children learn passively |
4. Independent Living | Practical instruction in daily living activities such as cooking, cleaning, personal hygiene, and budgeting |
5. Recreation & Leisure | Adapted sports (goalball, tandem cycling), accessible games (braille chess), and club participation |
6. Career Education | Job shadowing, internships, mentorship programs, resume writing, and interview preparation |
7. Assistive Technology | Training on screen readers, magnifiers, braille displays, and other adaptive tools |
8. Sensory Efficiency | Maximizing use of residual vision, developing auditory skills (sound localization), and touch discrimination |
9. Self-Determination | Goal-setting, problem-solving, self-advocacy, and decision-making skills |
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
UDL is an educational framework that emphasizes flexibility and adaptability in instructional design to accommodate diverse learners’ needs. Rather than retrofitting accommodations after designing a lesson, UDL encourages teachers to build accessibility into the design from the start.
The three core principles of UDL are:
UDL Principle | Description | Examples for VI Learners |
Multiple Means of Representation | Presenting information through various sensory modalities to address diverse learning preferences | Story in braille, audio, and print; tactile materials; audio descriptions for videos |
Multiple Means of Action & Expression | Allowing learners to demonstrate understanding in different ways | Oral responses, audio recordings, tactile creations, movement-based responses |
Multiple Means of Engagement | Using varied strategies to motivate students, stimulate interest, and encourage participation | Hands-on exploration, pair work, real-world connections, student choice |
A STAsh-Inspired Approach to Multisensory Language Learning
Research confirms that students learn effectively through touch, hearing, and kinesthetic experiences. STASH is used in this course as a practical mnemonic to support teachers in thinking multisensorily. It is not presented as a formal pedagogical framework but as a design aid aligned with research on embodied cognition, multisensory learning, and Universal Design for Learning. Sound, touch, and action remain the primary multisensory channels for inclusive language learning. Smell and temperature are optional sensory cues and should only be used when safe, appropriate, and aligned with learners’ sensory profiles.
STAsh stands for:
Letter | Sense | Application in Language Teaching |
S | Sound | Onomatopoeia (splash, tap, whoosh), animal sounds, environmental sounds, rhythm and music |
T | Touch | Textures (rough, smooth, soft, hard), shapes, temperatures, tactile materials and objects |
A | Action | Movement, gestures, Total Physical Response (TPR), physical positioning in space |
S | Smell (optional) | Scents associated with vocabulary (flowers, food, nature), aromatic materials (only if appropriate, safe, and agreed with learners) |
H | Heat (contextual) | Temperature (warm, cool, hot, cold), weather concepts, sensations (descriptive language rather than physical exposure) |
Why STASH matters:
Traditional language learning materials often privilege sight—colorful pictures, visual texts, videos. For a congenitally blind student, descriptions like “green forest” or “beautiful colors” lack experiential meaning. The STASH principle reminds teachers to engage all available senses when designing or adapting materials.
STASH in practice—transforming visual descriptions:
Original (Visual) | Revised (STASH) |
“The green rainforest was beautiful.” | “The rainforest air was warm and wet. The leaves felt smooth and cool.” (H, T) |
“Colorful birds flew in the sky.” | “Birds sang loudly – tweet, tweet, caw, caw! Their wings made a soft whooshing sound.” (S, A) |
“The flowers were pretty.” | “Flowers opened, and their sweet smell filled the air.” (S – smell) |
“The rain fell on the leaves.” | “Rain made a loud sound on the leaves – tap, tap, tap!” (S – sound) |
In inclusive language learning design, Sound, Touch, and Action form the core multisensory channels, while other sensory cues may be used selectively and responsibly,
🔊 Sound – environmental sounds, spoken input, rhythm
✋ Touch – real objects, textures, tactile graphics
🚶 Action – movement, gesture, embodied meaning
The Attitudinal Shift
The first step towards inclusion is an attitudinal shift. Teachers must adopt a growth mindset, recognizing that diversity enriches the educational experience.
Key principles:
- Inclusion ≠ Simplification: Inclusive education does not mean lowering expectations or simplifying the curriculum. It means providing equitable access to rigorous content.
- Individual over diagnosis: Prioritize getting to know each student’s unique strengths, preferences, and needs rather than making assumptions based on their diagnosis.
- Proactive design: Design for accessibility from the start (using UDL and STASH) rather than retrofitting accommodations as an afterthought.
- Student agency: Empower students to self-advocate and communicate their needs—this is a key area of the ECC (Self-Determination).
Assistive Technology
Assistive technologies are essential for compensating for the lack of visual information and enhancing independence. Common types include:
- Screen Readers: JAWS, NVDA, VoiceOver, TalkBack—convert on-screen text into synthesized speech or Braille output
- Braille Displays: Tactile devices that convert digital text into Braille characters
- OCR Software: Converts printed text into digital text for screen readers or Braille devices
- Electronic Magnifiers: Enlarge printed materials for individuals with low vision
- Voice Recognition Software: Allows students to control computers and dictate text using voice
The following practical example demonstrates how to apply the foundational concepts—ECC, UDL, and Reflect on which sensory channels (sound, touch, action) your material currently engages—in a real language learning context.
Activity: “Rainforest Wonders”
CEFR Level: A1-A2
Duration: 60 minutes
Target Group: Blind or visually impaired students learning English as a foreign language (can also be used in inclusive/mainstream classrooms)
Learning Objectives:
- Enhance English language proficiency through listening, reading, speaking, and comprehension exercises
- Learn vocabulary related to nature, animals, sounds, and sensations
- Introduce environmental education through rainforest content
- Develop multisensory literacy through tactile and auditory engagement
Materials:
Material | Purpose | Source |
“Rainforest Wonders” story | Reading comprehension | Provided in braille, large print, and audio |
Tactile story box | Multisensory vocabulary | Rough bark, smooth leaf, water container, cotton ball with forest scent |
Animal figures | Animal vocabulary | Frog, jaguar, parrot, snake, anteater, fish (toy stores) |
Rainforest soundscape audio | Listening, sound vocabulary | Video with sound effects (i.e Youtube, bbc) |
Sound-word matching cards | Vocabulary reinforcement | Teacher-made with braille labels |
The Story (Reflect on which sensory channels (sound, touch, action) your material currently engage with):
Rainforest Wonders
In the middle of the rainforest, the air was warm and wet. A big tree stood tall. Its bark was rough and hard. Near the river, the ground was soft and muddy. Flowers opened, and their sweet smell filled the air.
Rain came often. It made a loud sound on the leaves – tap, tap, tap! The water in the river moved fast. You could hear it – whoosh, whoosh!
One day, many animals came to the river. Birds sang loudly – “tweet, tweet, caw, caw!” Fish jumped in and out of the cool water – splash, splash! A jaguar sat very quietly behind the bushes. It waited and listened. Parrots called to each other – “squawk, squawk!” – again and again. A small frog jumped from leaf to leaf – hop, hop, hop!
In the rainforest, big animals and small animals lived together. An anteater walked slowly. It pushed its long nose into the ground to find ants. A long snake moved across the wet leaves. It made no sound at all.
The rainforest was like a big home. The trees gave food – bananas, coconuts, and nuts. The river gave water for all the animals to drink. The big leaves gave shade from the hot sun.
“I like it here!” said a young parrot. “The rain feels nice on my feathers.”
“Yes,” said an old frog. “I like the wet leaves and the cool mud. This is our home.”
Together, they listened to the sounds of the rainforest – the rain, the river, the birds, and the wind in the trees.
STASH Analysis of the Story:
STASH Element | Examples from Story |
Sound | tap, tap, tap (rain); whoosh (river); splash (fish); squawk (parrots); hop (frog); tweet, caw (birds) |
Touch | rough and hard (bark); smooth (snake); soft and muddy (ground); wet (leaves) |
Action | jumped, walked slowly, pushed, moved, waited, listened |
Smell | sweet smell (flowers) |
Heat | warm and wet (air); cool (water, mud); hot (sun) |
Session Overview:
Session | Focus | Duration | Key Activities |
1 | Multisensory Story Exploration | 5 min | Pre-teach vocabulary with tactile story box; listen to story while touching objects; comprehension questions |
2 | Sounds and Animals | 5 min | Sound walk; teach onomatopoeia; tactile animal exploration; sound-animal matching |
3 | TPR Movement and Speaking | 40 min | TPR animal actions; role-play; speaking circle; reflection |
Session 1: Multisensory Story Exploration (20 min)
Step | Time | Activity |
1 | 5 min | Pre-teaching vocabulary: Introduce key words using tactile objects from the story box (rough, smooth, wet, warm, cool) |
2 | 5 min | Story experience: Students listen to the audio story while touching corresponding objects at cued moments |
3 | 5 min | Comprehension: Oral questions first, then written/braille format (extended time for braille readers) |
4 | 5 min | Pair work: Students describe one object from the story box using new vocabulary |
Session 2: Rainforest Sounds and Animals (25 min)
Step | Time | Activity |
1 | 2,5 min | Sound walk: Play rainforest audio. All students close eyes. Ask: “What do you hear?” |
2 | 2,5 min | Sound vocabulary: Teach onomatopoeia – tap (rain), whoosh (river), splash (fish), squawk (parrot), hop (frog). Students repeat and create actions. |
3 | 5 min | Tactile animal exploration: Students handle 6 animal figures (frog, jaguar, parrot, snake, anteater, fish). Teacher describes each using story vocabulary. |
4 | 5 min | Sound-animal matching: Play animal sounds; students identify which figure makes that sound. Special focus: “Which animal makes NO sound?” (snake) |
5 | 10 min | Pair work: Student A describes an animal; Student B guesses. Switch roles. |
Session 3: TPR Movement and Speaking (20 min)
Step | Time | Activity |
1 | 5 min | TPR Animals: Teacher calls actions; students perform: “Jump like a frog! Walk slowly like an anteater! Move quietly like a snake!” |
2 | 5 min | Role-play: Assign each student an animal. Play rainforest sounds. Students move as their animal. When sound stops, describe: “I am a frog. I am jumping.” |
3 | 5 min | Speaking circle: Each student completes: “In the rainforest, I can hear… I can feel…” |
4 | 5 min | Reflection: What did you learn? What was your favorite part? |
UDL Alignment:
UDL Principle | Application in Activity |
Multiple Means of Representation | Story in braille, audio, print; tactile story box; animal figures; soundscape audio; STAsh (sound, touch,action-enhanced vocabulary |
Multiple Means of Action & Expression | Oral responses, tactile matching, TPR movement, pair descriptions, choice of response format |
Multiple Means of Engagement | Hands-on exploration, sound walk (all students participate equally), role-play, student choice of favorite animal |
Connection to ECC Areas:
Session Activity | ECC Area |
Tactile exploration of materials | Sensory Efficiency |
Working with braille story | Compensatory Skills |
Pair discussions | Social Interaction |
TPR animal movements | Orientation & Mobility awareness |
Expressing preferences, choosing animals | Self-Determination |
Using audio recordings | Assistive Technology |
Take a moment to consider the following reflective questions:
Reflective Question 1:
“Think about a language learning material you currently use (a reading text, a video, an activity). Apply the STASH principle: Which senses does it engage? Which senses are missing? How could you adapt it to be more multisensory?”
Reflective Question 2:
“Given that visually impaired students often miss out on incidental learning—the learning that sighted students acquire simply by observing their environment—how can you, as a language teacher, proactively design activities that compensate for this gap while also fostering self-advocacy skills (a key area of the ECC)?”
Consider: What specific modifications would you make to a typical speaking activity to ensure a visually impaired student can fully participate and feel empowered to ask for the support they need?
Resources and Organizations:
- ADCET (Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training): adcet.edu.au – Information on various disabilities, inclusive teaching strategies, and assistive technologies
- Project IDEAL: projectidealonline.org – Online teacher preparation program with modules covering different disability categories
- IRIS Center (Peabody College, Vanderbilt University): peabody.vanderbilt.edu – Free online resources for evidence-based instructional practices, including a module on instructional accommodations for visual disabilities
- European Blind Union (EBU): euroblind.org – Promotes equal opportunities and full participation for visually impaired individuals in Europe
- World Blind Union (WBU): worldblindunion.org – Global organization devoted to empowering blind people and raising awareness
- Hungry Fingers: hungryfingers.com – Professor Bob Marek’s specialized tactile teaching materials
Further Reading:
- Corn, A. L., & Erin, J. N. (2010). Foundations of Low Vision: Clinical and Functional Perspectives
- Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment – Companion Volume
- CAST (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
Term | Definition |
Accessibility | The quality of being easy to approach, enter, or use, especially for people with disabilities. |
Audio Description (AD) | An additional narration track describing visual information in media for blind or visually impaired audiences; also used as an innovative pedagogic practice in foreign language teaching exploring mediation. |
Braille | A system of raised dots invented by Louis Braille in 1824, used by people with visual impairments to read and write through touch. |
ECC (Expanded Core Curriculum) | A specialized set of nine key skills and knowledge areas designed to complement the general education curriculum and address the unique needs of students with visual impairments, teaching skills that sighted peers learn through observation. |
Haptic Sense | A key component of touch that goes beyond basic sensations; involves the ability to recognize and interpret qualities of objects through touch, such as texture, shape, size, weight, and temperature. |
Incidental Learning | Learning that sighted students acquire simply by observing their environment, which is often missed by students with visual impairments, requiring them to need more direct instruction. |
JAWS | Job Access With Speech – one of the most popular screen readers for Windows-based computers. |
NVDA | NonVisual Desktop Access – a free, open-source screen reader for Windows. |
Screen Readers | Software applications that convert on-screen text into synthesized speech or Braille output, enabling visually impaired individuals to access digital content. |
Tactile Graphics | Materials or software that create tactile representations of images, graphs, and diagrams, allowing visually impaired students to explore visual information through touch. |
TPR (Total Physical Response) | A language teaching method that emphasizes physical movement to reinforce language learning, particularly valuable for teaching spatial concepts to visually impaired students. |
UDL (Universal Design for Learning) | An educational framework emphasizing flexibility in instructional design (materials, methods, assessments) to accommodate diverse learners’ needs through multiple means of representation, action/expression, and engagement. |
KNOWLEDGE CHECK: QUIZ ITEMS
Instructions: Choose the best answer based on the module content.
- According to ICD-11, vision impairment is classified into which two main groups?
- A) Near and Far sightedness
- B) Distance and Near presenting vision impairment
- C) Mild and Severe low vision
- D) Central and Peripheral vision loss
- What is the primary function of the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)?
- A) To simplify the general education curriculum for visually impaired students
- B) To provide skills and knowledge areas that sighted peers learn through observation
- C) To focus solely on developing orientation and mobility skills
- D) To mandate the use of braille in all classroom activities
- Which three principles form the foundation of Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?
- A) Accessibility, Inclusivity, Diversity
- B) Multiple Means of Representation, Action/Expression, and Engagement
- C) Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic learning styles
- D) Input, Processing, and Output
- Which two are examples of screen reader software for Windows computers?
- A) OrCam MyEye and TalkBack
- B) VoiceOver and ChromeVox
- C) JAWS and NVDA
- D) Rotograph and Fleximan
- What is “incidental learning” and why is it relevant to teaching visually impaired students?
- A) Learning that happens by accident; it’s not relevant to VI students
- B) Learning acquired through observation; VI students miss it and need direct instruction
- C) Learning from mistakes; VI students make fewer mistakes
- D) Learning in informal settings; VI students learn better formally
- Activities like squeezing toys, popping bubble wrap, and using elastic bands support which aspect of the ECC?
- A) Social interaction skills
- B) Recreation and leisure skills
- C) Strengthening muscles for braille machine use (Compensatory Skills)
- D) Career education
- What teaching method uses physical movement to reinforce language learning and is particularly valuable for teaching spatial concepts?
- A) Grammar-Translation Method
- B) Total Physical Response (TPR)
- C) Audio-Lingual Method
- D) Communicative Language Teaching
Answer Key
Question | Answer | Explanation |
1 | B | ICD-11 classifies vision impairment into distance and near presenting vision impairment. |
2 | B | The ECC teaches skills that sighted peers learn through observation (incidental learning). |
3 | B | UDL is based on multiple means of representation, action/expression, and engagement. |
4 | C | JAWS and NVDA are both popular screen readers designed for Windows computers. |
5 | B | Incidental learning is acquired through observation; VI students miss it and need direct instruction. |
6 | C | These activities strengthen muscles needed for braille machine use (Compensatory Skills). |
7 | B | TPR uses physical movement to reinforce learning, ideal for teaching spatial concepts. |